Results of a repeated-measures analysis of variance of launch kinematics in chipmunks, red squirrels and flying squirrels
| Chipmunk | Red squirrel | Flying squirrel | P | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Joint timing and angles | ||||
| Knee minimum angle (degrees) | 49.7±1.4 | 52.5±2.0 | 40.5±1.4 | 0.031 |
| Knee maximum angle (degrees) | 110.0±1.7 | 114.1±3.7 | 104.0±2.9 | 0.300 |
| Knee excursion angle (degrees) | 60.3±1.7 | 61.7±3.8 | 63.4±3.3 | 0.906 |
| Ankle minimum angle (degrees) | 23.6±1.9 | 33.1±2.0 | 16.8±1.7 | 0.019 |
| Ankle maximum angle (degrees) | 127.2±15.7 | 133.5±5.4 | 133.3±2.9 | 0.716 |
| Ankle excursion angle (degrees) | 103.6±2.6 | 100.4±5.3 | 116.6±2.9 | 0.144 |
| Tail minimum angle (degrees) | 126.7±8.6 | 103.7±4.4 | 70.9±3.8 | 0.001* |
| Tail maximum angle (degrees) | 193.5±6.4 | 118.1±5.9 | 139.5±3.2 | 0.001* |
| Protraction angle at hand-off (degrees) | 46.9±1.0 | 43.0±0.8 | 47.2±1.1 | 0.142 |
| Protraction angle at toe-off (degrees) | 57.5±11.9 | 60.3±9.7 | 59.8±2.0 | 0.746 |
| Abduction angle at hand-off (degrees) | 67.6±2.1 | 54.1±1.8 | 64.4±2.6 | 0.172 |
| Abduction angle at toe-off (degrees) | 56.5±2.3 | 41.3±2.8 | 71.5±2.1 | 0.001* |
| Time to hand-off (ms) | 30±2.0 | 20±1.9 | 60±5.0 | 0.001* |
| Elbow angle at hand-off (degrees) | 156.6±5.6 | 168.1±4.6 | 133.7±7.2 | 0.197 |
| Elbow angle at toe-off (degrees) | 70.5±3.1 | 68.5±5.6 | 71.9±4.0 | 0.947 |
| Wrist angle at hand-off (degrees) | 145.6±3.5 | 156.9±2.7 | 153.1±2.8 | 0.195 |
| Wrist angle at toe-off (degrees) | 131.1±5.1 | 138.1±3.8 | 110.9±3.9 | 0.084 |
| Performance variables | ||||
| Take-off velocity (ms-1) | 2.3±0.05 | 3.0±0.08 | 2.5±0.06 | 0.001* |
| Horizontal range (m) | 1.6±0.04 | 2.3±0.07 | 1.9±0.05 | 0.002* |
| Take-off angle (degrees) | 9.7±2.5 | 21.0±2.2 | 12.0±2.6 | 0.402 |
| Preparatory duration (ms) | 60±4.0 | 70±4.0 | 70±0.005 | 0.808 |
| CM+propulsive duration (ms) | 60±2.0 | 50±2.0 | 90±0.01 | 0.377 |
| Total duration (ms) | 120±4.0 | 130±5.0 | 160±0.006 | 0.061 |
Values are means ± S.E.M. (N=5 trials per individual, 5 individuals per species; thus N=25 for each mean).
CM, counter movement.
Significance following sequential Bonferroni correction is indicated by an asterisk.