Article Figures & Tables
Figures
- Fig. 1.
Sample flight measurements from Carollia perspicillata and Eptesicus fuscus. Flight measurements at 1.9 m s–1 (A), 4.3 m s–1 (B) and 7.1 m s–1 (C) for C. perspicillata, and at 3.2 m s–1 (D), 5.3 m s–1 (E) and 7.3 m s–1 (F) for E. fuscus. Top row: vertical wrist position (at zero, the wrist is level with the sternum in the wind tunnel reference coordinate system). Gray bars indicate downstroke. Second row: pectoralis electromyogram (EMG; right y-axis) and shoulder angle (angle between humerus and flight direction) (left y-axis). Third row: biceps EMG (right y-axis) and elbow angle (left y-axis). Fourth row: 3D distance from sternum to wrist. Variables measured for each wingbeat (schematically described in A,B) were: (i) EMG burst duration, (ii) EMG cycle duration, (iii) aEMG (average burst intensity, measured as integrated area under the rectified EMG burst, divided by burst duration), (iv) EMG offset, (v) wingbeat duration and (vi) wingbeat amplitude.
- Fig. 2.
Wingbeat kinematics and EMG activation patterns in C. perspicillata (left column) and E. fuscus (right column). Data are means±1 s.d. for 15+ wingbeats at each speed per individual. Each individual is labeled by distinct symbol–color combinations. Data are pooled from repeat experiments on individuals. Black lines are significant global least squares method regression relationships; colored lines are for individuals (P<0.05).
- Fig. 3.
Relationship between normalized average burst EMG (aEMG) (mean±s.d.) and flight speed in C. perspicillata and E. fuscus. Top row, pectoralis major; bottom row, biceps brachii short head. Individuals are labeled by distinct symbols, and repeat experiments on an individual are indicated by variations in color tone.
- Fig. 4.
Pectoralis aEMG versus flight speed. Individuals are labeled by distinct symbols, and repeat experiments on an individual are indicated by variations in color tone. Polynomial fits in A were applied to data for repeat experiments on a given individual. Data are trial means±1 s.d.
- Fig. 5.
Span ratio in C. perspicillata and E. fuscus. Span ratio in C. perspicillata (A) decreases with speed and is lower in magnitude than the relatively flight speed-invariant span ratio in E. fuscus (B). Data are median lines with quartile envelopes of the ratio between minimum and maximum distance between the wrist and sternum (upstroke versus downstroke). See also Fig. 6.
- Fig. 6.
Maximum joint flexion and extension with respect to flight speed in C. perspicillata and E. fuscus. Maximum joint flexion (dark, downstroke) and extension (light, upstroke) at the shoulder, elbow and wrist with respect to flight speed in C. perspicillata (left column) and E. fuscus (right column). Data are median lines with quartile envelopes with repeat experiments on all individuals pooled. The wing is more extended at the shoulder and elbow in E. fuscus than in C. perspicillata but E. fuscus modulates joint flexion–extension with respect to flight speed and therefore wing folding decreases with flight speed in this species.
- Fig. 7.
Comparison of the speed-dependent modulation of pectoralis muscle recruitment and metabolic power consumption for C. perspicillata. Closed circles indicate pectoralis muscle recruitment (mean±s.e.m.) whereas open circles indicate metabolic power consumption [from von Busse et al., 2013 (mean±s.e.m.)]. Metabolic and aEMG data for each speed increment have been shifted horizontally for ease of interpretation.
Tables
Article navigation
Related articles
Cited by...
More in this TOC section
Similar articles
Other journals from The Company of Biologists
Editorial – The changing of the guard
In his Editorial, Hans Hoppeler announces that he will be stepping down as Editor-in-Chief of JEB in July 2020. He reflects on the history of JEB, why he has enjoyed his tenure as JEB’s Editor-in-Chief and the recent developments in the publishing world.
Editors’ choice – Parental stressor exposure simultaneously conveys both adaptive and maladaptive larval phenotypes through epigenetic inheritance in the zebrafish (Danio rerio)
An oil spill is never a good thing, but Naim Bautista and Warren Burggren have shown that zebrafish can pass on resistance to the damaging effects of an oil-spiked diet to their offspring.
The derivative of force with respect to time does not have a standard term in physics. In their new Commentary, David C. Lin and his colleagues propose that the term ‘yank’ should be used to denote the time derivative of force.
Runners waste energy every time their legs stop swinging, but now a team of scientists from the US and Canada have shown that a springy ankle tether can reduce runners’ energy costs by 6.4%, which is nearly the entire cost of swinging the limbs. Read the full research article here.
Journal of Experimental Biology is pleased to announce a new partnership with Publons! This allows reviewers to easily track and verify every review by choosing to add the review to their Publons profile when completing the review submission form. Publons also makes it simple for reviewers to showcase their peer review contributions in a format that can be included in job and funding applications (without breaking reviewer anonymity). Read the official announcement here!
The Company of Biologists provides grants to fund scientific meetings, workshops and conferences in the fields covered by our journals. Typically, meetings with fewer than 100 people may be granted up to £2,000, increasing up to £6,000 for about 400 people. The next deadline to apply is 28 November 2019.
preLights – preLights reaches 500 posts!
The success of preLights is down to the hard work of our preLighters. Head over to the preLights website to find out more about our most active early-career-researchers.