Article Figures & Tables
Figures
- Fig. 1.
Sample flight measurements from Carollia perspicillata and Eptesicus fuscus. Flight measurements at 1.9 m s–1 (A), 4.3 m s–1 (B) and 7.1 m s–1 (C) for C. perspicillata, and at 3.2 m s–1 (D), 5.3 m s–1 (E) and 7.3 m s–1 (F) for E. fuscus. Top row: vertical wrist position (at zero, the wrist is level with the sternum in the wind tunnel reference coordinate system). Gray bars indicate downstroke. Second row: pectoralis electromyogram (EMG; right y-axis) and shoulder angle (angle between humerus and flight direction) (left y-axis). Third row: biceps EMG (right y-axis) and elbow angle (left y-axis). Fourth row: 3D distance from sternum to wrist. Variables measured for each wingbeat (schematically described in A,B) were: (i) EMG burst duration, (ii) EMG cycle duration, (iii) aEMG (average burst intensity, measured as integrated area under the rectified EMG burst, divided by burst duration), (iv) EMG offset, (v) wingbeat duration and (vi) wingbeat amplitude.
- Fig. 2.
Wingbeat kinematics and EMG activation patterns in C. perspicillata (left column) and E. fuscus (right column). Data are means±1 s.d. for 15+ wingbeats at each speed per individual. Each individual is labeled by distinct symbol–color combinations. Data are pooled from repeat experiments on individuals. Black lines are significant global least squares method regression relationships; colored lines are for individuals (P<0.05).
- Fig. 3.
Relationship between normalized average burst EMG (aEMG) (mean±s.d.) and flight speed in C. perspicillata and E. fuscus. Top row, pectoralis major; bottom row, biceps brachii short head. Individuals are labeled by distinct symbols, and repeat experiments on an individual are indicated by variations in color tone.
- Fig. 4.
Pectoralis aEMG versus flight speed. Individuals are labeled by distinct symbols, and repeat experiments on an individual are indicated by variations in color tone. Polynomial fits in A were applied to data for repeat experiments on a given individual. Data are trial means±1 s.d.
- Fig. 5.
Span ratio in C. perspicillata and E. fuscus. Span ratio in C. perspicillata (A) decreases with speed and is lower in magnitude than the relatively flight speed-invariant span ratio in E. fuscus (B). Data are median lines with quartile envelopes of the ratio between minimum and maximum distance between the wrist and sternum (upstroke versus downstroke). See also Fig. 6.
- Fig. 6.
Maximum joint flexion and extension with respect to flight speed in C. perspicillata and E. fuscus. Maximum joint flexion (dark, downstroke) and extension (light, upstroke) at the shoulder, elbow and wrist with respect to flight speed in C. perspicillata (left column) and E. fuscus (right column). Data are median lines with quartile envelopes with repeat experiments on all individuals pooled. The wing is more extended at the shoulder and elbow in E. fuscus than in C. perspicillata but E. fuscus modulates joint flexion–extension with respect to flight speed and therefore wing folding decreases with flight speed in this species.
- Fig. 7.
Comparison of the speed-dependent modulation of pectoralis muscle recruitment and metabolic power consumption for C. perspicillata. Closed circles indicate pectoralis muscle recruitment (mean±s.e.m.) whereas open circles indicate metabolic power consumption [from von Busse et al., 2013 (mean±s.e.m.)]. Metabolic and aEMG data for each speed increment have been shifted horizontally for ease of interpretation.
Article navigation
Related articles
Cited by...
More in this TOC section
Similar articles
Other journals from The Company of Biologists
Welcome to JEB’s new Editor Monica Daley
We are pleased to welcome Monica Daley to JEB’s Editorial team. Monica has had a long association with JEB before taking up her new role, overseeing peer review of neuromuscular physiology, terrestrial biomechanics and integrative physiology of locomotion.
In the field with Robyn Hetem
Continuing our fieldwork series, Robyn Hetem reflects on working with species ranging from aardvark to zebra, and the impact COVID-19 has had on fieldwork.
Read & Publish participation continues to grow
“It is particularly encouraging for early career researchers, as it allows them to display their research globally without the need to find costs to cover the open access option.”
Professor Fernando Montealegre-Z (University of Lincoln) shares his experience of publishing Open Access as part of our growing Read & Publish initiative. We now have over 150 institutions in 15 countries and four library consortia taking part – find out more and view our full list of participating institutions.
Nocturnal reef residents have deep-sea-like eyes
Fanny de Busserolles and colleagues from The University of Queensland have discovered that the eyes of nocturnal reef fish have multibank retinas, layers of photoreceptors, similar to the eyes of deep-sea fish that live in dim light conditions.
Mechanisms underlying gut microbiota–host interactions in insects
In their Review, Konstantin Schmidt and Philipp Engel summarise recent findings about the mechanisms involved in gut colonisation and the provisioning of beneficial effects in gut microbiota–insect symbiosis.