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Figures
- Fig. 1.
Diagram illustrating definitions of Darwinism, Modern Synthesis (neo-Darwinism) and Integrated Synthesis. The diagram is derived from Pigliucci and Müller's (Pigliucci and Müller, 2010) presentation of an Extended Synthesis. All the elements are also present in their diagram. The differences are: (1) the elements that are incompatible with the Modern Synthesis are shown coloured on the right; (2) the reasons for the incompatibility are shown in the three corresponding coloured elements on the left. These three assumptions of the Modern Synthesis lie beyond the range of what needs to extend or replace the Modern Synthesis; (3) in consequence, the Modern Synthesis is shown as an oval extending outside the range of the extended synthesis, which therefore becomes a replacement rather than an extension.
- Fig. 2.
Relationships between genes, environment and phenotype characters according to current physiological and biochemical understanding. This diagram represents the interaction between DNA sequences, environment and phenotype as occurring through biological networks. The causation occurs in both directions between all three influences on the networks. This view is very different from the idea that genes ‘cause’ the phenotype (right-hand arrow). This diagram also helps to explain the difference between the original concept of a gene as the cause of a particular phenotype (geneJ) and the modern definition as a DNA sequence (geneM). For further description and analysis see Kohl et al. (Kohl et al., 2010).
- Fig. 3.
Conrad Waddington's diagram of the epigenetic landscape. Genes (solid pegs at the bottom) are viewed as parts of complex networks so that many gene products interact between themselves and with the phenotype to produce the phenotypic landscape (top) through which development occurs. Waddington's insight was that new forms could arise through new combinations to produce new landscapes in response to environmental pressure, and that these could then be assimilated into the genome. Waddington was a systems biologist in the full sense of the word. If we had followed his lead many of the more naive 20th century popularisations of genetics and evolutionary biology could have been avoided. Image taken from The Strategy of the Genes (Waddington, 1957). Reprinted (2014) by Routledge Library Editions.
- Fig. 4.
Many models of biological systems consist of differential equations for the kinetics of each component. These equations cannot give a solution (the output) without setting the initial conditions (the state of the components at the time at which the simulation begins) and the boundary conditions. The boundary conditions define what constraints are imposed on the system by its environment and can therefore be considered as a form of contextual causation from a higher scale. This diagram is highly simplified to represent what we actually solve mathematically. In reality, boundary conditions are also involved in determining initial conditions and the output parameters can also influence the boundary conditions, while they in turn are also the initial conditions for a further period of integration of the equations. The arrows are not really unidirectional. The dotted arrows complete the diagram to show that the output contributes to the boundary conditions (although not uniquely), and determines the initial conditions for the next integration step. Legend and diagram are reproduced from Noble (Noble, 2012).
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