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Figures
- Fig. 1.
Learning curves presented as the percent of individual Africanized honey bees responding to trained stimuli for the absolute conditioning protocol over seven learning trials. Conditioned color (blue, green or violet) was paired with a sucrose reward. Controls had color stimulus and sucrose presented in separate trials. The error bars represent standard errors of the mean, and the colored lines represent the stimulus; 24 h memory is shown to the right of the dashed line. PER, proboscis extension response.
- Fig. 2.
Learning performance and memory for the discrimination task, shown as percent of the bees that responded to rewarded stimuli, versus the unrewarded stimuli presented in pseudorandom order over 14 stimulus presentations. Here we present all the possible combinations of rewarded and unrewarded colors, for the three colors used: blue (B), green (G) and violet (V). Continuous lines represent the rewarded color; dashed lines represent the unrewarded color. Error bars represent the standard errors of the mean for percentage of individuals responding to the stimulus. Memory after 24 h is shown to the right of the dashed line.
- Fig. 3.
Comparative olfactory and visual learning performance in restrained PER experiments. Odors are represented as dashed lines, and colors as continuous lines; error bars are standard errors of the mean over 10 learning trials.
- Fig. 4.
Color learning performance of bees with and without antennae, using the absolute learning protocol over seven learning trials. Continuous lines represent performance of bees with intact antennae and dashed lines represent performance of bees without antennae. Bees trained to blue were fully or partially de-antennated (see Materials and methods), but the data are pooled because of insignificant differences between those groups. All other antennal removals involved the entire flagellum. Colors of lines correspond to colors used for training. Error bars represent standard errors of the mean. Note that inhibiting olfactory stimuli seemed to inhibit responses to rewarded stimuli, and did not improve visual learning.
- Fig. 5.
Triangular color space as calculated using AVICOL.exe and the basic R package as described in Materials and methods. Each LED used during training is a point in the triangular space determined by the relative stimulation of the three photoreceptors of the European honey bee. The three vertices of the triangle represent maximal stimulation of the corresponding photoreceptor. Maximal stimulation of each of the photoreceptors occurs at wavelengths of 344 nm for the short, 436 nm for the medium and 556 nm for the long. All LED colors should be visible colors that are detectably different to the honey bee according to this model. The violet LED is represented by the pink point in the middle, the blue LED is to the left represented by the blue point, and the green LED is represented by the green point close to maximal stimulation for the long photoreceptor.
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