Introduction

Organisms have evolved various mechanisms for adaptation to adverse environmental conditions such as lack of water (cryptobiosis or anhydrobiosis), freezing temperatures (cryobiosis) and lack of oxygen (anoxia) (Hochachka and Somero, 1984). In plants or unicellular organisms that do not have a clearcut nervous system, individual tissues or cells express stress tolerance in response to a change in the environmental condition (Sakai and Larcher, 1987; Ingram and Bartels, 1996). However, vertebrates and higher invertebrates are believed to regulate stress tolerance directly or indirectly through the brain and become dormant when those stresses are severe and sustaining (Lyman et al., 1982; Denlinger, 1985; Danks, 2000).

A chironomid, Polypedilum vanderplanki Hint., is the largest multicellular animal known to tolerate almost complete dehydration without ill effect (Hinton, 1951, 1960a). Cryptobiotic larvae show extremely high thermal tolerance from -270°C to +106°C and can recover soon after prolonged dehydration of up to 17 years (Hinton, 1960a,b, 1968). However, the underlying molecular and metabolic mechanisms largely remain a mystery. Here we show that rapid accumulation of trehalose plays a key role in the successful induction of cryptobiosis, and that, surprisingly, cerebral regulation is not involved in the process of cryptobiosis.

Materials and methods

Results and discussion

P. vanderplanki lives in the temporary rock pools of tropical Africa. When the pool dries up, the larva in its mud nest becomes dehydrated and remains desiccated until the next rain. Recently, we succeeded in the successive rearing of this species in the laboratory, and established a short-term (2 day) desiccating method for induction of cryptobiosis. Using this method, we examined the process and degree of larval dehydration.

Cryptobiotic larvae of this species were crumpled and sometimes folded in the middle, as is typical for larvae found in mud nests in the field. When given water, all of them recovered within half an hour and moved actively (Fig. 1A, Table 1). During the process of desiccation, the larvae accumulated a large amount of the sugar trehalose (average of approximately 18% of dry body mass: Intact, dry in Fig. 2). Other sugars and polyols were not detected.

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Fig. 1.

P. vanderplanki during recovery from cryptobiosis. (A) Larva recovering from cryptobiosis at 0, 8, 16, 32 and 44 min after rehydration. (B) Decapitated cryptobiotic larva. (C) Decapitated larva on the second day after rehydration.

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Fig. 2.

Change of trehalose level in P. vanderplanki larvae during desiccation. Intact, dry: intact larvae (filled circles); -H, dry: decapitated larvae (open triangles); -HT, dry: larvae from which the head and thoraces were removed (open circles); -H, wet: decapitated larvae in water (open squares). There were significant differences in trehalose content 12 h after desiccation in intact larvae, at 48 h and 72 h after desiccation in -H larvae, and at 48 h after dessication in -HT larvae (Mann—Whitney U test, P<0.05). Values are means ± S.D., N=3-9.

Cryptobiotic organisms usually contain a high concentration of disaccharides at the dry state (Crowe, 2002). In general, sucrose is found in seeds and higher plants. Lower plants, lower animals and microorganisms, such as Artemia cysts (Clegg, 1965), nematodes (Madin and Crowe, 1975; Womersley and Smith, 1981), fungus (Sussman and Lingappa, 1959) and bacteria (Payen, 1949; Clegg and Filosa, 1961), all accumulate trehalose at a high concentration of approximately 20% of the dry mass. It has been suggested that trehalose provides the most effective protection against dehydration because of its high ability for water replacement and glass formation (Crowe et al., 1987, 1992; Green and Angell, 1989). Similarly, in P. vanderplanki as a higher invertebrate, a high level of trehalose accumulation would contribute to successful induction of cryptobiosis.

To elucidate the possible role of the brain, suboesophageal ganglion (SG) and thoracic ganglia (TG) in cryptobiosis of P. vanderplanki, we used larvae deprived of the brain, SG and TG by ligation applied behind the head or thorax followed by decapitation or severance of head and thorax. After a 3-day desiccation, such larvae became crumbled, but not folded (Fig. 1B). When completely dehydrated larvae were later submerged in water, most of the decapitated larvae and half the number of those from which the head and thorax were removed were able to recover (Fig. 1C, Table 1). Indeed, some of the decapitated larvae moved actively and survived for more than 2 weeks after recovery.

The rehydration recovery time of the operated larvae was longer than that of intact larvae (Table 1). Larvae of P. vanderplanki are uniformly red due to equal distribution of hemoglobin in their hemolymph. During dehydration, the red color became more intensive in the apical and distal parts of the body (Fig. 1A), suggesting that body water evaporated mainly from the mouth and anus. In the decapitated larvae, both water loss during dehydration and penetration of water during rehydration appeared to occur mainly through the anus. The reduced capacity for water uptake possibly caused the delay in their recovery.

During desiccation, the treated larvae also accumulated a large amount of trehalose, although only about half as much as the intact larvae (-H, dry and -HT, dry in Fig. 2). By contrast, when the decapitated larvae were continuously incubated in water, they did not accumulate trehalose (-H, wet in Fig. 2). It must be stressed that the ligation and subsequent removal of the front body part were carried out in iced water and the larvae had not been exposed to air before transfer to the desiccation dish. Consequently, these larvae received no environmental signal of the forthcoming dehydration before the head and thorax were severed. Paralysis in iced water did not affect the induction of cryptobiosis. Cryptobiosis was successfully induced in decapitated larvae in which ligation and body severing was carried out without ice-water treatment (89%, N=9). We concluded that the brain, SG and TG did not affect the induction and termination of cryptobiosis, i.e. cryptobiosis occurs without the regulation of the brain, SG and TG, just as in plants and unicellular organisms. It would be interesting to examine whether such a regulatory system is operative in other cryptobiotic lower invertebrates, such as nematodes, water flea, rotifers and tardigrades (Young, 1985; Sømme, 1995).

Our findings may be greatly relevant to medical science. Currently, relatively long-term storage of living cells can be done only in cryoprotectant solution at extremely low subzero temperatures (Homma and Morimoto, 1997; Wolkers et al., 2002), and live human organs can be stored for only a short period in vitro (Cooper, 1991; Novick et al., 1992; Kenmochi et al., 1997). From this study, we suggest that individual organs and cells of cryptobiotic larvae, devoid of cerebral regulatory factors, could be stored at room temperature under dehydrated conditions. Further investigations to elucidate the mechanism of the successful induction and recovery of cryptobiosis in the `higher' invertebrate P. vanderplanki might be of enormous consequence for the field of cell and organ storage.