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First published online April 17, 2009
Journal of Experimental Biology 212, 1344-1350 (2009)
Published by The Company of Biologists 2009
doi: 10.1242/jeb.021881
Fast learning but coarse discrimination of colours in restrained honeybees
1 Department of Neurobiology, Institute of Biology, Free University of Berlin,
14195 Berlin, Germany
2 Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour, School of Psychology, University of
Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QG, UK
* Author for correspondence (e-mail: n.hempel{at}exeter.ac.uk)
Accepted 10 February 2009
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Summary |
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 TOP Summary INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
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Key words: PER, classical conditioning, colour vision, honeybee, insect learning
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPSummaryINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
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;
Cheng et al., 1986;
Chittka and Menzel, 1992;
Vorobyev and Menzel, 1999).
Accordingly, free-flying bees readily learn to associate a coloured stimulus
with a reward (von Frisch,
1914; Kühn,
1924; Daumer, 1956;
Daumer, 1958;
Menzel, 1967;
Menzel, 1968;
Menzel, 1969). A single
exposure to a sucrose reward on a colourful plate mediates learning and the
formation of short-term memories in free-flying bees, and experiencing a few
colour-reward pairings leads to long-term colour memories
(Menzel, 1967;
Menzel, 1968;
Menzel, 1979;
Menzel and Erber, 1972) (for a
review, see Menzel et al.,
1974). By contrast, restrained bees seem to learn with much
greater difficulty to associate colours with a sucrose reward in a classical
conditioning procedure, the proboscis extension response (PER)
(Masuhr and Menzel, 1972).
Kuwabara (Kuwabara, 1957)
succeeded in training restrained bees to colours after cutting off the
antennae; however, in his experiments bees needed to experience many
colour–reward pairings before showing a consistent PER response.
Recently, Hori and colleagues (Hori et
al., 2006) replicated those early experiments, applying more rigid
conditioning procedures and appropriate controls. Training was extended over
two days to achieve stable levels of performance, and at least five
conditioning trials were required before bees learnt the association. Again
these experiments indicated that colour conditioning of PER is rather
difficult. For comparison, olfactory conditioning of PER requires only a
single trial for the bees to learn an odour and approximately three training
trials to reach reliable, high levels of performance
(Vareschi, 1971;
Bitterman et al., 1983) (for a
review, see Menzel, 1999). Since classical conditioning of PER is a very valuable tool to investigate sensory and learning mechanisms at the behavioural and neuronal level, it was considered worthwhile to continue searching for methods which might be used for visual learning in restrained bees, in particular PER conditioning using colours as conditioned stimuli.
Colour vision and learning has been well-characterised in studies with
free-flying honeybees (e.g. Daumer,
1956; Menzel,
1967; Menzel,
1968; Menzel,
1969; von Helversen,
1972; Menzel and Greggers,
1985; Menzel and Backhaus,
1991; Neumeyer,
1980; Neumeyer,
1981; Backhaus et al.,
1987; Werner et al.,
1988; Srinivasan and Lehrer,
1988; Giger and Srinivasan,
1996; Giurfa et al.,
1996; Giurfa et al.,
1997; Brandt and Vorobyev,
1997; Lehrer,
1999; Hempel de Ibarra et al.,
2000; Hempel de Ibarra et al.,
2001; Niggebrügge and
Hempel de Ibarra, 2003). Psychophysical models were developed to
predict how bees discriminate colours (e.g.
Backhaus, 1991;
Vorobyev et al., 2001).
Neurophysiological studies attempted to elucidate neural post-receptor
mechanisms underlying colour vision (e.g.
Menzel, 1974;
Kien and Menzel, 1977a;
Kien and Menzel, 1977b;
Hertel, 1980;
Riehle, 1981;
Hertel and Maronde, 1987;
Ehmer and Gronenberg, 2002;
Yang et al., 2004); however,
many questions still remain unanswered, in particular with respect to
higher-order colour processing and learning and the respective neural
substrates. Behavioural paradigms with fixed bees are therefore highly
valuable because they offer new opportunities for studying colour vision at
both the behavioural and neurophysiological level. Our current conditioning
protocol proved to lead to fast acquisition and allowed us to advance the
study of how colours are learnt by restrained bees. We used both absolute and
differential conditioning and quantitatively assessed the discrimination and
generalisation of coloured stimuli that were varied systematically in their
chromatic and achromatic properties. Contrary to our expectations we found
that bees discriminated colours poorly and also showed broad colour
generalisation which raises further important questions as to how colour
information is processed in the honeybee brain in different behavioural
contexts.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPSummaryINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
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). The
animals were fed ad libitum 20 h before training with 30% sucrose
solution. 2 h before the experiment, the last antennal segments (the
flagellae) were cut.
During training, bees were placed in the centre of a cylinder (7 cm in
diameter) constructed from standard printer paper. A 5x5 cm window in
the cylinder permitted handling and observation of the bees. The setup was
located in a dark room with constant temperature (22°C). The visual
stimulus was projected from behind on the cylinder wall opposite the
observation window creating a circular light spot with slightly diffuse
borders (cold light lamp Highlight 3001, Olympus, Hamburg, Germany). The spot
was large (
70 deg.) and presented to the right eye of the bees. Prior to
and in-between training trials, bees were placed in a chamber illuminated by a
UV-white fluorescent lamp (Arcadia Bird Lamp Compact, Arcadia, Redhill,
UK).
After placing a bee in the cylinder and allowing for 15–20 s for adaptation, the conditioned stimulus (CS) was displayed for 7 s. The sugar reward [50% sucrose solution, unconditioned stimulus (US)] was applied directly to the proboscis 4 s after CS onset and the bee was allowed to feed for 3 s. We recorded separately whether or not a bee extended its proboscis during the initial CS presentation and whether it responded to the US application. Bees that did not respond to the US application for three subsequent trials were withdrawn from the experiment. The inter-trial interval (ITI) was 12±2 min.
Stimuli
Several colour and grey filters (e-colour, Rosco, Stamford, CT, USA) were
used to create differently coloured stimuli (human yellow, green, blue).
Spectral irradiance of the light stimuli was measured with a SD2000
spectrometer (Ocean Optics, Dunedin, FL, USA) calibrated with a
Tungsten-Halogen Light Source (LS-1-CAL, Ocean Optics). For each training-test
stimuli pair, we calculated relative receptor excitation (quantum catches) and
colour distances (
S) in the perceptual colour space of bees
using the RNL (Receptor Noise Limited) model of bee colour vision
(Vorobyev et al., 2001). This
was used as a measure for colour similarity
(Table 1). Brightness cues were
estimated as relative differences in contrast mediated by the long-wavelength
sensitive receptor (L-receptor), which is the input channel for the
achromatic visual system used for object and pattern recognition
(Giger and Srinivasan, 1996;
Giurfa et al., 1997;
Giurfa and Vorobyev, 1998;
Hempel de Ibarra et al.,
2001). We also estimated the differences in the activation of all
three receptor types, which mediates the phototactic response in bees (overall
quantum catch) (Menzel and Greggers,
1985).
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Experiments 1 and 2 (absolute and differential conditioning)
During absolute conditioning, the bees were presented with 10
stimulus–reward pairings [rewarded colour stimulus (CS+)] whereas during
differential conditioning, bees experienced a sequence of 10 CS+ interspersed
with 10 presentations of an unrewarded colour stimulus (CS–),
maintaining the same ITIs. The sequence was kept constant for all animals
experiencing alternating CS+ and CS– and always began with a CS+.
Following the final training trial, the bees were confronted with several
unrewarded tests in which the novel colour stimuli were presented that
differed from the training stimuli in either chromatic or achromatic
properties. Tests were delivered continuing the same ITI but the order of
presentation was randomised between animals.
Experiment 3 (memory test and extinction)
To investigate how long the learnt colour was retained, we trained one
group to a yellow stimulus for three trials and tested their response to the
yellow CS after 1 h of rest under the daylight lamp. Two other groups were
tested for extinction and were exposed to the CS without reward several times
after an initial training period consisting of either three or seven
trials.
Statistics
We compared the difference between response rates in the first and the
final training trial using a Wilcoxon matched-pairs test (
-level 0.05).
This test was also used to assess whether during tests bees discriminated or
generalised the learnt colour stimulus by comparing the response probability
between the last rewarded training trial and the unrewarded test trials. In
order to analyse whether bees discriminated colour in differential
conditioning procedures, we also used the Wilcoxon matched-pairs test,
comparing responses towards CS+ and CS– in the final training trials.
The generalisation strength for different unrewarded test stimuli was assessed
by comparing the reactions with a McNemar 
2 test (within
groups; with Bonferroni adjustment for multiple comparisons where necessary)
or a G-test for contingency tables (between groups).
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RESULTS |
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TOPSummaryINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
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Bees conditioned with the yellow stimulus (N=30) showed a similar pattern of responses. They did not extend the proboscis when presented with the blue and white test stimuli, which were very dissimilar in colour (Wilcoxon matched-pairs test, Z=4.01 and 3.63, respectively, P<0.05). However, they did respond to the dim yellow and green stimuli (Wilcoxon matched-pairs test, Z=1.26 and 1.01, respectively, n.s.), i.e. test stimuli, which were more similar in colour to the training stimulus.
When comparing the level of generalisation and discrimination in the
unrewarded tests, we found some evidence for a graded response that roughly
correlates with colour similarity. The comparison of the responses to test
stimuli for the bees trained to blue revealed that the scores were not
significantly different between yellow and green, between green and white and
between white and dim blue (McNemar 2 test, adjusted for
multiple testing, 2=0.49, 4.9 and 1.6, n.s.). Given the high
spontaneous response rates in this experiment, we analysed the results again,
scoring only the choices of those bees that did not display a spontaneous
response in the first CS presentation. Results for learning and tests were not
qualitatively different, i.e. led to the same significant or non-significant
test results. This applies to all the experiments presented in this paper
suggesting there was no influence of spontaneous choices on the learning and
discrimination performance.
To summarise, we found a consistent pattern of responses to similar and dissimilar colours following an absolute conditioning procedure (Table 1). Green proved to be more similar to yellow than blue or white, white was more similar to blue than to yellow. During the tests, bees responded to colours that were perceptually similar to the trained CS in terms of their chromatic aspects. To determine whether bees might have learnt the brightness of the CS and used it to discriminate between dim and bright colours in the tests, we compared the performance against the relative brightness differences of the stimuli (Table 1). On inspection, it seems unlikely that bees might have relied simply on brightness differences given that they responded to test colours that were both brighter and dimmer than those trained. This conclusion is further supported by the observation that acquisition of dim and bright colours trained in parallel [yellow and blue (Fig. 1); yellow and dim yellow (data not shown, N=29 and 31, respectively)] was identical.
Experiment 2: colour discrimination and generalisation after differential conditioning
Generalisation performance can be strongly influenced by experimental
procedures. Therefore, we wished to explore whether a differential
conditioning procedure would induce accurate colour discrimination. Based on
evidence from modelled thresholds for colour discrimination in free-flying
bees (Vorobyev et al., 2001),
we expected that bees would now be able to differentiate between similar
colours which they did not discriminate in the previous experiment, e.g.
yellow and green. We also asked whether bees might use differences in
brightness when trained to discriminate similar colours. Both questions could
be addressed using differential conditioning.
A new set of bees were trained in a differential conditioning paradigm (10 CS+/CS– blocks) to a yellow CS+ and either a green (N=20) or a blue (N=20) CS– (Fig. 2A). As expected, bees discriminated yellow from blue easily at the end of the training (Wilcoxon matched-pairs test, Z=3.06 and 3.0, respectively, P<0.05) but did not discriminate when the yellow CS+ stimulus was trained against the green CS– or when green was presented as novel test colour to the bees trained with the blue CS– (Wilcoxon matched-pairs test, Z=0.91 and 0, respectively, n.s.). The same effect was observed when bees were trained to the reversed set of stimuli (Fig. 2B); they easily discriminated the blue CS+ from a yellow CS– stimulus (N=17; Wilcoxon matched-pairs test, Z=2.55, P<0.05) but failed to show discrimination between the green CS+ and the yellow CS– stimuli (N=18; Wilcoxon matched-pairs test, Z=0, n.s.).
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These results so far also indicate that bees are unlikely to use brightness differences for colour discrimination and generalisation under our experimental conditions. The only deviation from these observations was a significantly reduced test response to the dim green following training bees to a (brighter) yellow CS+ versus a (dimmer) green CS– (Fig. 2A) (Wilcoxon matched-pairs test, Z=2.07, P=0.04). We cannot rule out that in this particular test, bees might have reacted less to the dim green test stimulus because it was much dimmer. Perhaps if the brightness of stimuli is extremely different, bees might perceive such differences, which is a question of interest for future work. However, in all other colour combinations tested in the present study, bees were not able to use brightness differences.
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Acquisition was similar in both groups trained in parallel with reciprocal colour arrangements reaching significant increases in response probability (Fig. 3) (Wilcoxon matched-pairs test, Z=2.52 and 2.02, respectively, P<0.05). Bees, however, failed to use the brightness difference to respond exclusively to the rewarding stimulus during 10 blocks of successive CS+ and CS– presentations; they did not discriminate between a bright and a dim yellow stimulus and vice-versa (Fig. 3) (Wilcoxon matched-pairs test, Z=0.53 and 1.60, respectively, n.s.). Brightness differences were not attended during tests either. For example, bees conditioned to dim yellow CS+ did not respond in the test to the blue that was similar in brightness but responded towards the chromatically similar green (Wilcoxon matched-pairs test, Z=0.6, n.s. and 2.4, P<0.05, respectively). Bees trained to a yellow CS+ also responded in the same way during test (Wilcoxon matched-pairs test, Z=1.0, n.s., and 2.4, P<0.05, respectively).
Since bees failed to discriminate between similar colours such as yellow and green, we trained a new group of bees to a blue CS+ versus a white CS–, a colour pair with an intermediate chromatic similarity (see Table 1; Fig. 4). A second group was trained in parallel to a blue CS+ versus a yellow CS– that was dissimilar in colour. As expected from the previous experiment (see Fig. 2B), bees were able to quickly inhibit their response to a yellow CS– (N=22) (Fig. 4). The response to the white CS– was initially not different to that of the blue CS+ (Fig. 4). However, at the end of 10 training blocks bees showed a significantly reduced response to the white CS– (N=24; Wilcoxon matched-pairs test, Z=3.41, P<0.05).
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Interestingly, the conditioning procedure seemed to have affected the bees' responses towards these two colour stimuli of an intermediate similarity. Following absolute conditioning with the blue stimulus (first experiment; Fig. 1), bees responded strongly to white whilst after a differential conditioning, they were able to discriminate these colours. Furthermore, bees did not respond to white as a novel test colour after being conditioned to a blue CS+ versus a yellow CS– (Fig. 4) (Wilcoxon matched-pairs test, Z=2.37, P=0.02).
Experiment 3: strength of acquisition after an absolute colour conditioning
How strong are the associations formed during visual PER conditioning with
colours? In order to approach this question of interest when investigating
learning mechanisms underlying classical PER conditioning, we trained bees to
the yellow stimulus during three trials (N=42)
(Fig. 5). One hour after the
last training trial, bees were found to respond to the learnt colour with the
same response probability as in the final training trial (Wilcoxon
matched-pairs test, Z=0.8, n.s.). Such a result ensured that the
training and testing procedures of our experiments described above were
performed in a reliable learning setting.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPSummaryINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
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;
Gerber and Smith, 1998),
leading some authors to argue that the learning of visual cues in bees might
be mediated by stimulus–response rather than stimulus–reward
associations (Mauelshagen and Greggers,
1993). In the present study, we observed fast and stable
acquisition that occurred within the first few trials for all of the five
coloured stimuli used. Bees responded to a specific colour rather than to a
general light stimulus. Colour-specific associations were retained for at
least one hour. Our data support previous evidence that bees use colour
information for the proboscis extensions towards a conditioned visual stimulus
in expectation of reward (Kuwabara,
1957; Daumer, 1958;
Hori et al., 2006).
An interesting outcome of this study was the poor colour discrimination
ability of bees. Colours that were predicted to be distinguishable for the bee
eye on the basis of bee colour vision models and on evidence obtained in
numerous studies with free-flying bees (e.g.
von Helversen, 1972;
Backhaus et al., 1987;
Vorobyev et al., 2001;
Giurfa, 2004) were not
discriminated. The sensitivity functions of the three types of bee
photoreceptors are relatively narrow and well-separated within their visible
spectrum, allowing for an excellent colour vision with a high resolution of
colours (von Helversen, 1972;
Vorobyev, 1997;
Vorobyev and Menzel, 1999).
Still under the current experimental conditions, bees were not able to learn
to discriminate between similar colours, although they did show discrimination
for colour pairs that were very dissimilar or of intermediate similarity (the
latter only following differential conditioning). We found that the least
similar stimulus pair, blue and yellow, were discriminated easily from the
second training trial onwards whereas the more similar stimuli, blue and
white, were discriminated only following the sixth trial onwards
(Fig. 4). The most similar
yellow–green and yellow–dim yellow stimulus combinations were not
discriminated within the 10 blocks of CS+/CS– training provided (Figs
2 and
3). In the current experiments,
the degree of difficulty reflected in the length of training required to
achieve discrimination was clearly related to the degree of chromatic
similarity. The question remains open as to whether, under the current
experimental conditions using PER, conditioning similar colours, such as green
and yellow, were below the threshold of discrimination. If this in fact was
not the case, we hypothesise that a training period of more than 10
CS+/CS– blocks may have eventually resulted in differential responses
between even similar colours. It would then be a case to provide bees with an
extended training before they could perform well in a difficult discrimination
task as shown for free-flying bees (Dyer
and Chittka, 2004a).
We found different responses at testing to a colour of intermediate
similarity (white) for bees experiencing either absolute or differential
training to blue (Figs 1 and
4). The bees generalised
strongly to white when blue had been trained alone whereas the response to
white was significantly reduced when blue had been trained in differential
conditioning versus yellow. This is in line with results from
experiments comparing the performance of bees after absolute and differential
conditioning to visual and olfactory stimuli
(Giurfa et al., 1999;
Giurfa, 2004;
Dyer and Chittka, 2004b;
Wright et al., 2008). These
results provide support for the hypothesis that coarse colour discrimination
in PER-mediated visual learning may be an effect of the strong generalisation
of colours. More experiments are required to uncover the perceptual basis of
the observed colour discrimination performance in the PER-conditioning
paradigm and whether this improves with either extended or perhaps more
frequent training.
Most results pointed to the use of chromatic rather than brightness-related
similarity or difference between stimuli during learning. Bees were not using
brightness differences within the brightness range tested in the present
study. However, we cannot fully exclude the possibility that these could be
perceived and perhaps even learnt. Under certain experimental conditions,
animals may fail to demonstrate their ability to discriminate. For instance,
fruit flies trained in a flight simulator
(Ernst and Heisenberg, 1999)
were able to discriminate some patterns, such as differently oriented bars and
crosses or crosses and circles, as proven by distinct preferences during the
pretraining phase. But they did not use this discrimination to solve the
subsequently conditioned discrimination task with the same two stimuli.
However, since free-flying bees are rather insensitive to brightness
differences of stimuli of a similar or larger size than the spots we used here
(Backhaus et al., 1987;
Brandt and Vorobyev, 1997;
Giurfa et al., 1997;
Giurfa and Vorobyev, 1998;
Hempel de Ibarra et al., 2000;
Niggebrügge and Hempel de Ibarra,
2003), we conclude that it is most likely that in our current
experiments bees did not rely on the brightness of stimuli.
We tested the extinction of the learnt colour and found that the response
rate declined during the first three extinction trials after pairing the
yellow stimulus with reward seven times. Kuwabara
(Kuwabara, 1957) reported that
bees that had learnt to respond to a colour still reacted after 30 consecutive
unrewarded stimulus presentations. In this early work, he did not use a strict
timing protocol for conditioning. Animals were trained during two days with
ITIs ranging from 15 to 60 min, which may explain the difference between their
study and our results. In our experiments, performance did not drop beyond a
level that was similar to the initial acquisition responses after three
extinction trials. This result resembles the recovery effects that have been
reported for olfactory PER conditioning one hour following the final of five
extinction trials (Sandoz and
Pham-Delègue, 2004). A direct comparison, however, is
difficult and further studies are required to address the dynamics of
extinguishing visually conditioned PER.
Based on our current results, we propose that the PER might be relevant for behavioural contexts in which colour information is not required to be as precise as it is known to be for visually guided behaviours during free flight. Olfactory and mechanosensory cues may be more important to bees in non-flight behaviour, such as orienting and detecting sugar reward whilst on a flower or communication in the hive, and therefore processed more thoroughly in such PER-related behavioural contexts. It remains to be studied further whether colour discrimination is indeed poor in a PER-conditioning context, and how it relates to the behavioural role of visually conditioned PER and to properties of sensory information processing pathways linked to the PER-eliciting network in the honeybee brain.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
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Footnotes |
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