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Fig. 5. Phase-shift induced modulation of mean lift production depends on wing
length in tandem model wings. The length of the model wings was 6.9 (light
gray), 7.7 (blue), 8.5 (purple), 9.3 (orange), 10.1 (black), 10.9 (red), 11.7
(green) and 12.5 cm (dark gray). (A) Lift modulation of the lower hindwing
(12.5 cm wing length), while length of the upper forewing varied between 6.9
and 12.5 cm. (B) Lift modulation in length-changing forewing and length
constant hindwing of 12.5 cm. (C) Combined fore- and hindwing lift as shown in
A and B, respectively. (D) Hindwing lift modulation during length changes of
the hindwing. Forewing length is constant at 12.5 cm. (E) Peak phase at which
fore- (black) and hindwing (red) produce maximum mean lift. Data are plotted
against the ratio between hind- and forewing length. A value of 1.0 means that
both wings have equal length (12.5 cm). (F) Strength of peak-to-peak
modulation of fore- (black) and hindwing (red) lift production. Modulations
were derived from sinusoidal fits to the data set (forewing lift: fit on data
between ±15% phase-shift, hindwing lift: fit on all data) as shown by
the colors in A–D. Insets in E show the shape of the model wings used in
the experiments. The rounded wing tip was similar in all wings while total
wing length varied between minimum and maximum values. Aspect ratio varied
between approximately 1.7 (6.9 cm wing length) and 3.1 (12.5 cm wing length),
respectively. Wing chord=4.0 cm. Vertical distance between both wings was 1.25
mean wing chord. For kinematic pattern, see legend of
Fig. 4. More information on the
methods is given elsewhere (Maybury and
Lehmann, 2004).
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