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First published online June 27, 2008
Journal of Experimental Biology 211, 2296-2302 (2008)
Published by The Company of Biologists 2008
doi: 10.1242/jeb.015131
Diapause in tardigrades: a study of factors involved in encystment
1 Department of the Museum of Paleobiology and Botanical Garden, Via
Università 4, 41100, Modena, Italy
2 Department of Animal Biology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via
Campi 213/D, 41100, Modena, Italy
* Author for correspondence (e-mail: guidetti.roberto{at}unimore.it)
Accepted 12 May 2008
 |
Summary |
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 TOP Summary INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
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Key words: dormancy, diapause, encystment, token stimuli, stress, Eutardigrada, Amphibolus volubilis
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPSummaryINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
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). Dormancy involves a temporary suspension of active life, a
reduced or suspended metabolism and a developmental standstill. It can have
profound ecological and evolutionary implications, affecting rates of
population growth and potential rates of adaptation to a varying environment
(Hunter and McNeil, 1997). In
addition, it can allow the synchronization of reproductive cycles and the
regulation of population structure and dynamics
(Gilbert, 1974;
De Stasio, 1989), contributing
to the maintenance of biodiversity and genetic variability within populations
(Ellner and Hairston, 1994;
Boero et al., 1996). According
to the cues required for its induction, maintenance and termination, dormancy
can be subdivided into quiescence and diapause
(Hand, 1991). Quiescence is
under exogenous control, being directly induced and maintained by adverse
environmental conditions. Conversely, it can immediately be reversed by
removal of the external stimuli (Hand,
1991). The concept of diapause is not always univocal, depending
on the animal groups considered (Daniel,
1970; Alekseev and
Sterobogatov, 1996;
Càceres, 1997;
Belmonte and Rossi, 1998;
Denlinger and Tanaka, 1999;
Ricci, 2001;
Sommerville and Davey, 2002).
According to Hand, diapause is under endogenous control, being not directly
induced by environmental conditions and maintained by an internal
physiological response (Hand,
1991). Its termination requires a specific cue that may not
correspond to favourable environmental conditions. According to Sommerville
and Davey (Sommerville and Davey,
2002) and Kostál
(Kostál, 2006),
diapause should be better viewed as a process, rather than a status, whose
induction and maintenance are related to external (environmental) and internal
(physiological) stimuli. In insects, diapause can be schematized in several
phases (Kostál, 2006):
(a) the induction phase, which occurs during a sensitive period when token
stimuli from the environment reach some critical level; (b) the initiation
phase in which development ceases, a regulated metabolic suppression occurs
and physiological preparations for adversities take place; (c) the maintenance
phase in which token stimuli may help to maintain diapause, metabolic rate is
relatively low and physiological processes lead to an increase in sensitivity
to terminating conditions; and (d) the termination phase in which specific
changes in environmental conditions stimulate a decrease of diapause
intensity.
In tardigrades, microinvertebrates found worldwide in a variety of
habitats, dormancy is very well documented. Tardigrades represent one of a few
animal phyla in which different forms of resting stage occur
(Bertolani et al., 2004). With
regard to quiescence, the different forms of cryptobiosis are very widespread
in terrestrial tardigrades. Under desiccation or cooling stresses, each stage
of the tardigrade life cycle is able to escape the stressful condition by
entering anhydrobiosis or cryobiosis
(Bertolani et al., 2004).
Anhydrobiotic or cryobiotic tardigrades are able to colonize environments
exposed to rapid and unpredictable desiccation or freezing. They show
extraordinary resistance to physical and chemical extremes far exceeding the
tolerance ranges of other active organisms
(Rebecchi et al., 2007). These
abilities allow cryptobiotic tardigrades to persist in environments from which
most other organisms are excluded and to reduce competition
(Bertolani et al., 2004).
Little attention has been devoted to the adaptive meaning of other forms of
tardigrade resting stage: resting eggs, cyclomorphosis and encystment. Hansen
and Katholm identified possible resting eggs in a Greenlander population of
Amphibolus nebulosus Dastych 1983
(Hansen and Katholm, 2002),
but their existence has only recently been confirmed in experimental cultures
of Macrobiotus richtersi Murray 1911
(Bertolani et al., 2004).
Cyclomorphosis is a cyclical change in morphology and physiology occurring
during the tardigrade life cycle that has been recorded with certainty only
for the marine eutardigrade Halobiotus crispae Kristensen 1982
(Kristensen, 1982;
Møbjerg et al., 2007).
Cyclomorphosis is characterized by four distinct states. Particularly
interesting is the resting state called pseudosimplex 1 because it represents
an adaptation to withstand stressful conditions. According to the geographic
distribution of different populations of H. cripsae, the
pseudosimplex 1 state can withstand low temperatures (in Greenland) or can
tolerate periods of oxygen depletion and heat stress during the Danish summer
(Møbjerg et al.,
2007).
Encystment has been found in some freshwater, moss-dwelling and soil
tardigrades (Murray, 1907a;
Murray, 1907b;
W
glarska, 1957;
Szymanska, 1995;
McInnes and Pugh, 1999;
Hansen and Katholm, 2002;
Guidetti et al., 2006).
Encysted tardigrades exhibit a contracted and oval form, with a thickened
external envelope made up of several cuticular layers, and eventually produce
a modified buccal–pharyngeal apparatus and claws. Encystment begins with
the discharging of the sclerified parts of the buccal–pharyngeal
apparatus (simplex stage), as in the molting process. Then, two or three new
cuticles are serially synthesized, according to the type of cyst
(Hansen and Katholm, 2002;
Guidetti et al., 2006). Some
species of the genus Amphibolus produce two types of cyst, called
type 1 and type 2 (Westh and Kristensen,
1992; Hansen and Katholm,
2002; Guidetti et al.,
2006). In Amphibolus volubilis, type 1 cysts are
structurally simpler than type 2 cysts and require a lower number of steps for
their production (Guidetti et al.,
2006). In an Arctic population of A. nebulosus, the
production of the two types of cysts is strictly related to season, and a
correlation between the two types of cyst and the production of resting eggs
could exist (Hansen and Katholm,
2002).
Some field or lab observations have not clearly identify the stimuli
involved in the cyst production of tardigrades
(Von Wenck, 1914;
Marcus, 1929;
Marcus, 1936;
Wglarska, 1957;
Szymanska, 1995;
Westh and Kristensen, 1992;
Hansen and Katholm, 2002).
Starting from these premises, our goal was to determine the role of the
environmental factors involved in cyst formation. Consistent with this goal,
laboratory experiments and a long-term study on the cyst dynamics of a natural
population of A. volubilis sampled for two consecutive years were
carried out. In addition, the cryptobiotic abilities of cysts were evaluated,
since there was no information on their anhydrobiotic ability and only a short
citation on their cryobiotic ability
(Westh and Kristensen,
1992).
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPSummaryINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
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)
and to the ultrastructure of its two types of cyst
(Guidetti et al., 2006). By
immersing the moss in tap water and sifting it repeatedly, non-encysted
animals and cysts were extracted and collected using a stereoscope. Other than
active animals, two types of cyst (type 1 and type 2) were recognized.
Induction of cyst state
Two experiments were performed to evaluate the involvement of temperature
in cyst formation. For these experiments, non-encysted active animals and
encysted animals were used. Specimens were extracted from moss samples
collected in the wild in November 2001, April 2002 and July 2002. The samples
collected in November 2001 and April 2002 were completely desiccated in the
lab at room temperature and then stored at –80°C until use (May
2002). Specimens with movement of legs or of their internal organs were
considered alive.
Experiment 1
Specimens extracted from samples collected in November 2001 and April 2002
were used. Most tardigrades extracted from these samples were non-encysted.
Non-encysted animals with different body sizes were used. Each animal was
singly placed in a covered glass cap containing 3 ml of mineral water and then
kept at 6, 14 or 20°C with a constant photoperiod: 12 h/12 h light/dark.
In particular, 14 animals collected in April and 19 collected in November were
kept at 6°C; 11 animals collected in April and 24 collected in November
were kept at 14°C; and 14 animals collected in April and 13 collected in
November were kept at 20°C. Every 3 days the state of each animal was
checked under a light microscope (objective x40) and the mineral water
of each cap was partially changed.
Experiment 2
Eighty non-encysted animals were used. These animals were derived from type
2 cysts, which were extracted from a moss sample collected in July 2002. After
13 days in water and moss debris at 14°C these animals had left the cyst
state. Non-encysted animals were placed in a cap containing mineral water and
kept at 14°C with a photoperiod of 12 h/12 h light/dark. Every 3 days the
state of each animal was checked until it formed a cyst or died.
Cyst dynamics
Moss samples were collected almost every month from March 2003 to March
2005. In the coldest months (from January to April), the rock was covered with
snow. At each sampling date, five samples of moss were randomly collected. In
the lab, all specimens of A. volubilis were extracted from 0.5 g of
each sample, divided into non-encysted animals, type 1 cysts and type 2 cysts,
and then counted.
Meteorological data (air temperature, rainfall and air relative humidity – RH) were considered for all sampling dates. The data came from the CAMM station of the Italian Air Force situated on Cimone Mountain (2165 m above sea level), 12 km from the sampling site. The mean air temperature and the mean RH recorded in the period between two consecutive sampling dates were considered. For the first sampling date, we considered the mean air temperature and RH recorded the 30 days previously. For rainfall, the sum of the millimetres of rain that fell 20 days before each sampling was considered. The hours of daylight (recorded in Modena) during the two sampling years were also considered.
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Survival ability
To test the ability of encysted and non-encysted animals to withstand
desiccation or freezing, and therefore to perform anhydrobiosis or cryobiosis,
we exposed tardigrade specimens to stressful conditions.
Freezing
Fifty-three type 2 cysts were used to evaluate their freezing survival
ability. They were extracted from the moss sample collected in July 2002. All
cysts were put in a covered glass cap containing 3 ml of mineral water,
transferred to –9°C for 24 h and then to –80°C. The cysts
were kept frozen at –80°C for 61 days. After this time, the cap
containing cysts was directly transferred to 20°C for thawing.
For comparison, 20 non-encysted active animals were frozen and thawed using the same protocol as for the cysts.
Immediately after the complete melting of the ice, all cysts and non-encysted animals were examined under a microscope to verify whether they were alive or dead.
Desiccation
Sixteen type 2 cysts still alive after the freezing experiment were used to
evaluate their desiccation survival ability. Cysts were placed on wet and
defauned moss leaves (microcosm) inside a small plastic Petri dish and
desiccated at room humidity (RH about 60%) and temperature (about 22°C).
Then, this microcosm was kept dry for 7 days at room temperature (about
22°C).
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After these treatments, microcosms were rehydrated. Twenty-four hours after re-hydration, all cysts and non-encysted animals were examined under a microscope to verify whether they were alive or dead.
Thermal stress
Type 2 cysts still alive after the freezing experiment were used to
evaluate their thermal tolerance. Sixteen cysts were put in a covered glass
cap with 6 ml of pre-heated mineral water and then kept for 3 h at 60°C [a
temperature used previously for similar experiments
(Rahm, 1925)]. Right after
this period the cysts were observed under a microscope and their survival was
evaluated.
For comparison, 17 non-encysted animals were handled in the same way as indicated above for encysted specimens.
In addition, two microcosms (see desiccation protocol), one with 14 type 2 cysts and the other with 13 non-encysted specimens, were desiccated at room temperature and RH and then kept at 60°C for 3 h. After this treatment both cysts and animals were rehydrated and examined under a stereoscope to verify their viability.
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RESULTS |
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TOPSummaryINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
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The number of days spent in forming type 1 cysts (P=0.021) and type 2 cysts (P<0.001) was inversely related to the temperature at which the non-encysted animals were kept: the higher the temperature, the faster the process (Fig. 2).
With regard to the duration of cyst states, under laboratory conditions animals stayed in type 1 cysts for about 20 days (at 14°C) or 40 days (at 6°C). The termination of the type 1 cyst state took place spontaneously; nevertheless some animals died before exiting from this state. Under laboratory conditions, animals spent up to 60 days in the type 2 cyst state. No animals were able to leave the type 2 cyst state and most of them died in this condition. Nevertheless, if the most external thick involucres were accidentally broken in the lab, the animal emerged from the cyst state after a few days. In these experiments, we did not find evidence of spermatozoa and mature oocytes within the gonads of type 2 cysts.
Experiment 2
Among the 80 non-encysted animals, 26 formed type 1 cysts and 33 died
during the simplex stage. Twenty-one specimens died 13 days after the
beginning of the experiments without any morphological modifications. Type 2
cysts were never formed. At 14°C, the time spent by non-encysted animals
to form type 1 cysts ranged between 13 and 35 days (mean 17.8 days; s.d. 8.4
days). The specimens remained in the type 1 cyst state for 10–15 days,
and spontaneously left it.
Cyst dynamics
Fig. 3 reports the
percentage of non-encysted animals, type 1 cysts and type 2 cysts of A.
volubilis at each sampling date. In both years, non-encysted animals were
found in all samplings. Cysts were found mainly in limited periods, and very
rarely the two types were found together. Type 2 cysts were abundant from June
to October, whereas type 1 cysts appeared from November to April. Type 2 cysts
were more abundant than non-encysted animals during summer periods (reaching
90.7% of the total), whereas type 1 cysts were generally in lower numbers than
non-encysted animals, reaching not more than 12.4% of the total. We found no
evidence of spermatozoa or mature oocytes within the gonad of A.
volubilis type 2 cysts. For type 1 cysts, we did not have sufficient
information.
The dynamics of the non-encysted animals were inversely related to air temperature values (P<0.001; Fig. 4) and hours of daylight (P=0.03) and directly related to air RH values (P<0.001; Fig. 5). The dynamics of type 2 cysts were directly related to air temperature (P<0.001; Fig. 4) and hours of daylight (P=0.02), and inversely related to air RH (P<0.001; Fig. 5). The dynamics of type 1 cysts were inversely related to air temperature (P<0.001; Fig. 4) and hours of daylight (P=0.01). No relationships were found between rain fall and the dynamics of the non-encysted animals, or of either type of cyst.
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Survival ability
The survival to freezing of 48 cysts (out of a total of 53) and 18
non-encysted animals (out of a total of 20) demonstrates that both type 2
cysts and non-encysted animals are able to withstand freezing. Similarly, the
desiccation experiments showed that both type 2 cysts and non-encysted animals
are able to survive desiccation. In fact, seven type 2 cysts (out of a total
of 16) and 34 non-encysted animals (out of a total of 48) were alive after 7
days in a desiccated state at room temperature. Moreover, six desiccated type
2 cysts (out of a total of 14) and seven desiccated non-encysted animals (out
of a total of 13) were alive after 3 h at 60°C.
All type 2 cysts and all non-encysted animals died after 3 h at 60°C in water.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPSummaryINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
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;
Sommerville and Davey, 2002;
Kostál, 2006). In
insects the induction phase of diapause occurs during a sensitive period when
the token stimuli from the environment reach a critical level
(Kostál, 2006). In
tardigrades, reserve depletion, low oxygen tension, pH alteration, temperature
variation and generic environmental deterioration have been related to
encystment processes (Von Wenck,
1914; Marcus,
1929; Marcus,
1936; Wglarska, 1957;
Szymanska, 1995;
Westh and Kristensen, 1992;
McInnes and Pugh, 1999;
Hansen and Katholm, 2002) but
it is still unclear whether these factors must be considered as the `inducing
factors' of encystment or the `environmental adversities' that the cyst state
has to withstand.
Our first experiment with cyst induction in A. volubilis led us to
hypothesize an involvement of temperature as a token stimulus. Moreover, even
the sampling period seemed to be involved in cyst production: tardigrades
collected in April formed mainly type 2 cysts, whereas animals collected in
November formed mainly type 1 cysts. The analyses of cyst dynamics confirmed
that temperature is directly or indirectly involved in the induction and
maintenance of the cyst state. In the two sampling years, the dynamics of the
two types of cyst of A. volubilis followed seasonal variations. Type
2 cysts were present during warm and dry periods increasing suddenly in number
around June and similarly decreasing suddenly in October. Type 1 cysts were
present in cold periods, but always in low numbers. In these periods, factors
such as temperature induced animals to form and successively to leave type 2
or type 1 cyst states. A large percentage of type 2 cysts (from 60.0 to 90.7%)
suddenly appeared when the mean air temperature reached or exceeded 12°C,
while type 1 cysts were present only when the mean air temperature was below
0°C. The token stimulus involved in the termination of the type 2
encystment process was probably the same stimulus involved in aestivating
insects, where diapause terminates when temperature decreases
(Denlinger and Tanaka, 1999).
The population percentage of type 2 cysts of A. volubilis quickly
decreased from 90.7% to 5.4% (Fig.
3) when the mean air temperature decreased below 8°C. This
verifies a synchronous process within the population. In insects, the
termination of diapause is also a synchronous process induced by specific
changes in the environment that may or may not correspond to favourable
conditions (Càceres,
1997; Kostál,
2006). Further support for temperature involvement as a token
stimulus in cyst production in tardigrades is given by a study of a Greenland
population of A. nebulosus in which a warm period induced type 2
cysts and a cold period induced type 1 cysts
(Hansen and Katholm,
2002).
We conclude that the spring animals (used in experiment 1) were already
sensitive (programmed) to approach to a warm season, while the autumn animals
were sensitive (programmed) to a cold season. Therefore, the different
responses were functions of the physiological state of the animals at the time
they were collected. This condition could be compared with the sensitive
period of insects (Ko
tál,
2006), indicating the involvement of endogenous factors in
tardigrade encystment. In insect diapause, responses to the token stimuli can
be modified by environmental factors during the induction phase
(Kostál, 2006).
Similarly, the results of experiment 1 indicate that high temperature (i.e.
20°C) can modify the response of the specimens collected in November,
leading them to produce only type 2 cysts. A further demonstration of the
involvement of endogenous factors in the encystment processes of A.
volubilis comes from the univocal response of the animals under
experiment 2. Non-encysted animals that previously were in the type 2 cyst
state formed only type 1 cysts, whereas non-encysted animals collected from
the wild (experiment 1) were able to form both cyst types. These two cyst
types were formed under the same photoperiod. Therefore, photoperiod does not
represent an indispensable direct token stimulus for cyst induction in
tardigrades.
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). To
protect themselves from these environmental adversities, diapausing animals
minimize exchanges with their environment by producing cocoons [e.g. Nemertea
and Annelida (Càceres,
1997; Diaz Cosin et al.,
2006)] or a thicker cuticle [e.g. dauer larva of nematodes
(Càceres, 1997)], or
remaining within the cuticle of the previous instar [e.g. pharate state of
insects (Gullan and Cranston,
2005)]. Similarly, encysted tardigrades (or pseudosimplex 1 state
of cyclomorphosis in the marine eutardigrade Halobiotus crispae) use
their old cuticle (exuvia), and in some cases further cuticular involucres, to
isolate or protect themselves from the environment
(Wglarska, 1957;
Kristensen, 1982;
Hansen and Katholm, 2002;
Guidetti et al., 2006;
Møbjerg et al., 2007).
During type 2 encystment, A. volubilis produces several cuticular
structures, undergoing deep morphological modification
(Guidetti et al., 2006). A
depletion of energy supply occurs through metabolism (even though the
metabolic rate is reduced) because animals cannot eat
(Pigòn and W
glarska,
1953; Guidetti et al.,
2006). In addition, when the animals are encysted, the population
cannot increase because 90% of animals are in this state and therefore cannot
reproduce. As a consequence, the production of type 2 cysts can be considered
a costly process, both at individual and population levels. In comparison,
production of the type 1 cyst represents a less costly process due to the
lesser morphological transformations the animal undergoes, and also because
only a small fraction of the population can be found in this state. Tardigrade
encystment (especially type 2 cysts) represents an adaptive strategy to
withstand environmental adversities, whose nature remains unknown.
Relationships between cyst production and tardigrade life cycle may exist.
In an Arctic population of A. nebulosus, production of cysts seems
obligate and is related to reproduction
(Westh and Kristensen, 1992).
Type 2 cysts of this species have been considered a necessary step in the
production of winter resting eggs (Hansen
and Katholm, 2002). The absence of mature male or female gametes
within A. volubilis type 2 cysts, shown by our results and by
Rebecchi and Bertolani (Rebecchi and
Bertolani, 1994), leads us to consider that the encystment of
A. volubilis, in contrast to that of A. nebulosus, is not
related to reproductive function.
A possible `environmental adversity' that animals withstand when producing
cysts could be the low tolerance of animals to low oxygen tension or to high
temperatures. Isohypsius laevis McInnes 1995, living in Antarctic
lakes, passes the winter encysted as a possible response to the anoxic
condition of the water (McInnes and Pugh,
1999). Even the eutardigrade H. crispae produces its
resting state (pseudosimplex 1 state) during warm periods, probably to
withstand oxygen depletion or heat stresses
(Møbjerg et al., 2007).
Consequently, A. volubilis animals withstand warm periods as type 2
cysts.
A common unfavourable environmental condition for terrestrial tardigrades
is the unavailability of free water, which they withstand by entering
cryptobiosis (anhydrobiosis and cryobiosis). Our experiments demonstrate that
non-encysted specimens of A. volubilis can survive desiccation by
entering an anhydrobiotic state, or they can withstand freezing by entering a
cryobiotic state. In addition they demonstrate that tardigrades are able to
withstand even repeated and successive cryptobiotic and diapausing states.
Therefore, the lack of availability of free water related to drying or
freezing cannot be considered the environmental adversity that animals
withstand when producing cysts, and it cannot be the selective factor inducing
the evolution or maintenance of encystment. Our experimental data demonstrate
that A. volubilis is able to enter both diapause and cryptobiosis.
Therefore, the evolution of the former adaptive strategy is not necessarily an
alternative to the evolution of the latter strategy. Our results also provide
evidence of an ability not known to date: the dormancy phenomena (diapause and
quiescence) can occur simultaneously, as summarized in
Fig. 6. In fact, type 2 cysts
of A. volubilis are able to survive at 60°C only in a desiccated
state, while they do not survive when hydrated. Moreover, type 2 cysts of
A. volubilis are able to freeze, entering a cryobiotic state, as are
both cyst types of A. nebulosus
(Westh and Kristensen, 1992).
This simultaneous ability to perform the two adaptive strategies largely
increases the possibility of resistance to environmental stresses.
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Acknowledgments |
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