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Fig. 2. (A–Q) Multiple categories of stroke patterns as used in the present
study. The black line shows the tip trajectory of the moving wing with the
position of superimposed chordwise wing segments every 0.125 s. Arrows
indicate the direction of wing motion during up- and downstroke. The small
circle at each wing segment indicates the leading edge. In all experiments the
angle of attack of the beating wing with respect to the horizontal was kept
constant at 50° while the vertical elevation of the wing trajectory
(heaving motion) from the horizontal stroke plane systematically varied within
the up- and downstroke. Stroke amplitude (160°), cycling frequency (0.17
Hz), start (–4% stroke cycle) and end (4% stroke cycle) of wing rotation
and up- to downstroke ratio (0.5) are the same in all figures. Wing separation
angle at ventral excursion is approximately 40°. Grey area indicates the
time during dorsal stroke reversal at which left and right wing perform
clap-and-fling without physically touching each other.
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