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Fig. 10. (A) A depiction of how the assumptions used in extending the instantaneous
measures of torque (or force) act over the course of a single wingbeat from
the beginning of downstroke to the end of the subsequent upstroke. In the
model, torque from the right wing is greater than that from the left wing
during the entire downstroke. Note that torque due to upward force on the
right wing has a negative sign; it was inverted to facilitate comparison with
the left wing. (B) The square of the wrist velocity magnitude, an important
part of our force and torque estimates. Note that the relationship between
right and left torques at mid-downstroke does not persist through the entire
stroke. The shading indicates downstroke in both modeled and recorded data;
kinematic mid-downstroke does not occur at the temporal midpoint of the
downstroke but downstroke did end at exactly 0.6 wingbeats in this
instance.
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