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Figure 4


Fig. 4. Partial phylogeny of wave-type gymnotiform fish, illustrating evolution of electrocommunication signals and their sexual dimorphism. Phylogeny based on Crampton and Albert (Crampton and Albert, 2006). Comparison of electrocommunication signals based on this study and published reports (Hopkins, 1974b; Hopkins, 1974c; Meyer, 1983; Hagedorn and Heiligenberg, 1985; Dye, 1987; Zupanc and Maler, 1993; Dunlap and Zakon, 1998; Dunlap et al., 1998; Dunlap and Larkins-Ford, 2003; Kolodziejski et al., 2005). `X', presence of the trait; `O', absence of the trait; `?', either the trait has not been investigated or the data are equivocal. 1Long- and short-duration interruptions in Eigenmannia may be analogous to high- and low-frequency chirps in Apteronotus (Hagedorn and Heiligenberg, 1985; Hopkins, 1974c). 2A. albifrons can produce GFRs and chirps that have complex spectro-temporal structure (Dunlap and Larkins-Ford, 2003; Serrano-Fernandez, 2003), but they are rare and are not similar to the multi-peaked chirps and GRFs of A. devenanzii. 3Hopkins recorded EOD modulations in only one female Sternopygus and it is thus unclear whether EOD modulations are sexually dimorphic in this genus (Hopkins, 1974b). 4Data from Hopkins (Hopkins, 1974c) and Hagedorn and Heiligenberg (Hagedorn and Heiligenberg, 1985) suggest sex differences in the number and/or structure of interruptions and rises, but statistical analyses were not reported. A, lower EOD frequencies in males than females; B, gradual frequency rises (GFRs); C, EOD modulations differentially depend on EOD frequencies of other fish; D, chirping; E, distinct high- and low-frequency chirps; F, higher EOD frequencies in males than females; G, sex difference in number of EOD modulations; H, short-duration chirps; I, high-frequency chirps with frequency undershoots; J, loss of sex difference in EOD frequency; K, multi-peaked chirps and GFRs common; L, more multi-peaked chirps produced by males; M, loss of differential production of EOD modulations based on EOD frequencies of other fish.





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