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Fig. 1. Isolated leg swinging was modeled as a simple pendulum. Leg angle {Theta} was defined relative to vertical, and torque T due to muscle force was defined as positive in the same direction as {theta}. We assumed a relatively constant moment arm for muscle force. Torque and rate of work requirements increase with the square and cube, respectively, of swing frequency f (Hz) or {omega} (rad s-1) above the natural frequency, fn or {omega}n respectively.





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