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Fig. 4. Differences in aerodynamic force production between the performance of a
single flapping wing (b) and when simultaneously flapping an imaged wing (a)
at close distance to elicit a clap-and-fling wing beat. (A) Difference in
total force production (a–b) normal to the wing surface due to
wing–wake interaction are plotted in black; differences in lift
production are shown in red and differences in drag are plotted in blue. The
time traces demonstrate that dorsal wing interaction due to clap-and-fling may
augment but also diminish force and lift production throughout the entire
stroke cycle. Roman numbers (I–VI) label the main force peaks found in
the data traces. (B) The small black dots during clap-and-fling indicate the
times in fractions of the stroke cycle at which digital particle image
velocimetry (DPIV) was performed. The stroke cycle starts and ends at
=1.00 (dorsal wing excursion);
however, due to the employed kinematic pattern the two wings clap (wings are
held in parallel) about 1% or 50 ms after the beginning of the downstroke.
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