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Fig. 3. Alterations in total lift and lift-to-drag ratio of the model fore- and
hindwing in response to changes in kinematic phase shift between both wings.
(A) Negative phase-shift values indicate that the forewing leads wing motion
(red) throughout the entire stroke cycle whereas positive phase-shift values
indicate that the hindwing leads wing motion (blue). Kinematic pattern of both
wings is the same (cf. Fig.
4C). (B-D) Lift averaged over an entire stroke cycle (closed red
circles) and lift-to-drag ratio (closed blue circles) are shown for the
forewing flapping on top of the hindwing (B), the hindwing (C) and the
combined performance of both fore- and hindwing (D) during various kinematic
phase relationships. Performances of single wings flapping without wake-wing
interaction are shown as solid lines in the respective color. Data are
presented for the robotic wings vertically separated by 1.3 (closed circles)
and 5.0 (open circles) mean forewing chord lengths, measured as the distance
between the rotational axis of the two wings (cf.
Fig. 1C). For an explanation of
L, see text.
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