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Fig. 3. Kinematic variables and aerodynamic forces over a wingbeat cycle. Yellow
circles indicate the dorsal reversal, and the red circle indicates the ventral
reversal point. (A) Representative time course of the three Euler angles
describing wing orientation: elevation (
), wing angle (
) and
deviation (
). (B) Accompanying time course of aerodynamically relevant
variables: wingtip velocity (Ut), rotational velocity
(
) and angle of attack (g). (C) Resultant time course
of forces: translatory (Ftrans; blue) and rotational
(Frot; green) forces. The sum of translatory and
rotational forces is equal to the calculated force (Calc.
FN; purple). The measured force (Meas.
FN; red) is the normal force measured using our
dynamically scaled mechanical model. The wake capture force is the large
discrepancy between measured and calculated force at the beginning of each
half-stroke, indicated by the open gray boxes.
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