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Fig. 1. The visual associative learning paradigm employed to train restrained
cockroaches. (A) Experimental set-up. Restrained cockroaches were positioned
at the center of the arena. The distance from the head to the position of
visual and olfactory cues was 15 cm. Green and red LEDs (I.D. 3 mm) as visual
cues were positioned in parallel with an odor cue approximately 5° from
the midline of the head. (B) Learning performance was determined from
classical conditioning procedures. These are forward conditioning,
simultaneous conditioning and backward conditioning. The duration of the
conditioned stimulus (CS; light cue) was 2 s and that of the unconditioned
stimulus (US; odor cue) was 1 s. The time between the onset of the CS and the
US indicates inter-stimulus intervals (ISI). The ISI in simultaneous
conditioning was 1 s. The CS and US overlap and cease simultaneously. In
forward conditioning, the CS is given in its entirety and, after a 2-s ISI, is
followed by the US. In backward conditioning, an ISI of 2 s separates the US
from the following 2 s-long CS. There is no overlap between the CS and US in
forward and backward conditioning. (C) Basic training regimens consisted of
three pre-training trials, five training trials and either three testing
trials and three control testing trials, or three control testing trials and
three testing trials. A 2-s exposure to a red diode (650 nm) was used to
control for other incidental stimuli (see text).
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