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Fig. 5. Drag coefficient averaged during periods of steady translation at a
constant angle of attack of 45° for the downstroke and upstroke plotted
against log10 Re. Mean drag coefficients are higher during
the upstroke and increase with decreasing Re. Filled symbols
represent numerical data, and open symbols represent experimentally determined
values reported in the literature. Open circles denote drag coefficients
measured by Thom and Swart
(1940) for a wing held at an
angle of attack of 45° in a steady flow. Open diamonds represent drag
coefficients measured by Dickinson and Götz
(1993) averaged over a distance
of seven chord lengths for a wing translated from rest. Open squares represent
drag coefficients measured by Dickinson
(1994) during translation at an
angle of attack of 45° following one half stroke at an angle of attack of
76° and wing rotation with a center of rotation at 0.2 chord lengths from
the leading edge.
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