Fig. 7. Wing kinematics for two flight behaviors: (A,C,E) for forward flight; (B,D,F) for turning maneuvers. The middle of the error bar is the actual data point. (A,B) Flapping angle. The smooth curves are fitted by the Fourier series as Equation 1, with the parameter k=1. The value of the error bar is the standard error of fitting expressed as equation 2, with the parameter P=4. The flapping angles of right and left hindwing and right and left forewing are represented by the symbols _rh, _lh, _rf and _lf, respectively. For forward flight, and for turning maneuvers, where the time t is ms, and flapping angle in degrees. (C,D) Torsional angle at the 50% spanwise positions. The smooth curves are fitted by the Fourier series as Equation 1 with k=3. The value of the error bar is the standard error of fitting expressed as Equation 2 with P=8. The torsional angles of right and left hindwing and right and left forewing are represented by the symbols _rh, _lh, _rf and _lf, respectively. For forward flight, and for turning maneuvers, where the time t is ms, and torsional angle in degrees. (E,F) Camber deformation (the ratio of the maximum arch rise to the mid-span chord length). The smooth curves are fitted by B-spline function. The value of the error bar is determined from the ratio of measurement error of any point on the distorted fringe to the mid-span chord length.

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