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Fig. 8. Lateral view of a dove at the beginning of the downstroke in slow flight (1 m s-1) with vectors showing the components of the induced velocity calculation (equation 3). The vertical induced airflow (Wiv) is calculated from equation 3, incident airflow (Wk+Ve) is measured via kinematics and wind-tunnel velocity, and horizontal induced airflow (Wih) is calculated from Wih=Wivtan({pi}/2-{theta}). Note that the vectors shown are not precisely to scale and that Wk acts opposite to the direction of wing motion. Wk, airflow generated by wing motion; Ve, effective wind-tunnel airflow; Wiv, vertical induced airflow (equation 3); Wit, total induced airflow perpendicular to Wk+Ve; Wih, horizontal induced airflow; {theta}, angle between Wiv and Wk+Ve.





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