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First published online June 13, 2008
Journal of Experimental Biology 211, 2079-2086 (2008)
Published by The Company of Biologists 2008
doi: 10.1242/jeb.015081
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The responses of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) to ultrasound-emitting predators: stress, behavioural changes or debilitation?

Henriette B. Schack1,*, Hans Malte1 and Peter T. Madsen1,2

1 Zoophysiology, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Aarhus, Bldn. 1131, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
2 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA


Figure 1
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  		Fig. 1. The experimental set-up of the heart rate experiment. Proportions are not accurate. The thick black lines indicate the sides of the test tank. The electrodes are connected to a custom-built pre-amplifier connected to the BioPac system. The restrainer containing the fish is placed 1.05 m in front of the transducer during the far-field exposures and 0.3 m in front in the near-field set-up.

 

Figure 2
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  		Fig. 2. The experimental set-up for the debilitation experiment. Proportions are not accurate. The thick black lines indicate the sides of the test tank. The flow chamber is placed parallel to the impinging sound wave and is positioned so the head of the fish is in the middle of the acoustic beam.

 

Figure 3
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  		Fig. 3. Wave form and power spectrum (inset) (FFT size 128, sampling rate 500 kHz, hamming window) of the pulse used in heart rate, behavioural and debilitation experiments. The signal was recorded inside the test tank in Hirtshals at the position of the fish.

 

Figure 4
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  		Fig. 4. Wave form and power spectrum (inset) (FFT size 8192, sampling rate 500 kHz, hamming window) of the click used in the debilitation experiment. The signal was recorded inside the test tank in Hirtshals at the position of the fish.

 

Figure 5
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  		Fig. 5. The individual heartbeat intervals for 10 Atlantic cod exposed to ultrasound. The shaded area indicates the 30 s exposure period.

 

Figure 6
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  		Fig. 6. Individual heartbeat intervals of 10 Atlantic cod during control stimulation. Fish 6, 8 and 10 were exposed to the acoustic control stimulation consisting of a hard knock on the mount holding the restrainer at t=0. The remaining fish were exposed to visual stimulation and the shaded area indicates the time frame within which the fish was stimulated visually.

 

Figure 7
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  		Fig. 7. The individual tail beat amplitude of five free-swimming Atlantic cod exposed to ultrasound. The shaded area indicates the 1 s exposure period.

 

Figure 8
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  		Fig. 8. Mean swimming speed of 10 Atlantic cod exposed to either an odontocete click (A) or an echosounder pulse (B). The shaded area indicates the 5 s exposure period.

 

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© The Company of Biologists Ltd 2008