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First published online April 8, 2004
Journal of Experimental Biology 207, 1643-1654 (2004)
Published by The Company of Biologists 2004
doi: 10.1242/jeb.00928

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Sound generation in the searobin (Prionotus carolinus), a fish with alternate sonic muscle contraction

Martin A. Connaughton

Washington College, Department of Biology, 300 Washington Ave, Chestertown, MD 21620, USA

e-mail: mconnaughton2{at}washcoll.edu

Accepted 6 February 2004

The Northern searobin (Prionotus carolinus) contracts its paired sonic muscles alternately rather than simultaneously during sound production. This study describes this phenomenon and examines its effect on sound production by recording sound and EMGs during voluntary and electrically stimulated calls. Sounds produced by a single twitch resulted in a two-part sound representing contraction and relaxation sounds. The relaxation sound of one twitch coincides with the contraction sound of the next twitch of that muscle. Maximum amplitude of evoked sounds occurs between 100 Hz and 140 Hz, approximately half the fundamental frequency of a voluntarily calling fish. The muscle is capable of following electrical stimulation at frequencies of up to 360 Hz. Rapid damping and response over a wide frequency range indicate that the swimbladder is a highly damped, broadly tuned resonator. A consequence of alternate contraction is a 3.3 dB loss in acoustic pressure due to the contraction of a single sonic muscle at a time. This decrease in amplitude is offset by a doubling of fundamental frequency and a constructive interaction between the sides of the bladder, resulting in increased amplitude of each unilaterally produced sound. The alternate contraction of the bilateral sonic muscles represents a novel solution to the inherent trade-off between speed and force of contraction in rapidly contracting sonic muscles.

Key words: sound production, sonic muscle, alternate contraction, swimbladder, fundamental frequency, constructive interference, sound amplitude, Prionotus carolinus

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