Fig. 1. Schematics of models and loading conditions used in this study. (A–E) Schematics of hypothetical goat skulls in parasagittal section. (A) Unvaulted frontal (UF); (B) vaulted cortical bone-filled frontal (SFC); (C) vaulted trabecular bone-filled frontal (SFT); (D) vaulted frontal with unstrutted sinus (US); (E) vaulted frontal with strutted sinus (SS). The endocranial cavity (ec) and sinuses (fs) are indicated in black and trabecular bone is indicated in gray, along with the external cortex (ecx) and internal cortex (icx) of the frontal bone. Schematics of finite element models in (F) dorsal and (G) left lateral views, with arrows indicating the location and direction of modeled loads for various loading cases. DHL, double horn loading case; FL, frontal loading case; SHF, single horn front loading case; SHL, single horn lateral loading case; SHT, single horn tip loading case.