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Figure 3


Fig. 3. Schematic of particle separation at the boundary of a vortex ring. (A) Fluid particle pairs straddling the vortex boundary have a larger separation rate in backward time, indicating larger values of backward-time FTLE (finite-time Lyapunov exponent) at the front boundary of the vortex ring. (B) Fluid particle pairs straddling the vortex boundary have a larger separation rate in forward time, indicating larger values of forward-time FTLE at the rear boundary of the vortex ring. x and y are particle trajectories; T is integration time.