Fig. 4. Vertical force augmentation due to dorsal wing–wing interaction in 17 gross kinematic patterns. (A) Augmentation of vertical force (two-wing minus one-wing performance) plotted as a function of mean vertical force produced throughout the stroke cycle, (B) vertical force augmentation plotted against mean vertical force coefficient based on a conventional quasi-steady approach, (C) vertical force augmentation plotted against the relative contribution of wing rotation (rotational effect) and wake capture to quasi-steady translational vertical force, and (D) change in orientation of total force vector (pictogram) due to dorsal clap-and-fling wing–wing interaction. Letters plotted on or close to data points correspond to the letters of the kinematic patterns shown in Fig. 2.