Fig. 1. Pear-shaped wing tip trajectory (red) during wing flapping of a tethered fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Black dot indicates wing insertion point (WH) on the insect body; circled cross shows the position of the centre of body mass (COG) at the transition between thorax and abdomen. Superimposed body posture was reconstructed from free flight experiments. Drosophila wing trajectory is most similar to kinematic pattern D in Fig. 2.