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Figure 1


Fig. 1. Angles and areas measured from wing and body motion of rufous hummingbirds (Selasphorus rufus) during flight. Certain measures were bird-centered (A) and those in (B,C) were derived from global coordinates because they incorporated free-stream velocity. Filled-outlines of bird (A,B) illustrate wing at the start of downstroke, and broken-outline of wing illustrates wing position at the end of downstroke. (A) Black cross-section represents a pronated wing at mid-downstroke. {alpha}c=chord angle relative to mid-frontal plane of body with {alpha}c>0 for supination and {alpha}c<0 for pronation. ß=body angle relative to horizontal. {gamma}b=anatomical stroke-plane angle relative to mid-frontal plane of body. {gamma}h=tracking stroke-plane angle relative to horizontal. (B) {Psi}d and {Psi}u=global stroke-plane angle during downstroke and upstroke, respectively. (C) Global stroke-plane area was outlined by the wingtips during downstroke (dark gray areas) and upstroke (light gray areas) for each wingbeat.