Fig. 10. The 2-D projection of the paths of the right wingtip in the X-Z plane with variation in kinematic parameters. Here we show the standard wingbeat, the average kinematic parameter set adopted by the simulated moth with all ten kinematic parameters free to vary (solid black line), and two variations on this standard wingbeat. The variations show the kinematic effect of changing two of the parameters most clearly associated with maintaining hovering flight. The arrows indicate the direction of wing motion along the wingtip path. Body angle and centre of gravity location were recorded from the model. Artwork courtesy of Michael Tu.