Fig. 5. Variation of kinematic parameters in relation to downstroke deviation. (A) Wingtip trajectories of downstrokes and accompanying upstrokes of a single individual, color-coded according to downstroke deviation value (color bar is shown on the left). Black circles indicate ventral and dorsal amplitudes. (B) Examples of wing orientations accompanying high (red) and low (blue) downstroke deviation, shown for the downstroke (above) and the upstroke (below). (C) Relationship between downstroke deviation and ventral amplitude within the experimental population (R²=0.78). A subtle distinction exists between Mode 2 (gray points; blue line is a second order regression) and Mode 1 (pink points; red line). No distinction between modes was observed for the following parameters within the experimental population: relationship between downstroke deviation and (D) dorsal amplitude (R²=0.02), (E) instantaneous wingbeat frequency (R²=0.01) and (F) downstroke/upstroke ratio (R²=0.30). Black circles in C–F indicate values for the individual shown in A.