Fig. 3. Kinematic variables and aerodynamic forces over a wingbeat cycle. Yellow circles indicate the dorsal reversal, and the red circle indicates the ventral reversal point. (A) Representative time course of the three Euler angles describing wing orientation: elevation (), wing angle () and deviation (). (B) Accompanying time course of aerodynamically relevant variables: wingtip velocity (U_t), rotational velocity () and angle of attack (_g). (C) Resultant time course of forces: translatory (F_trans; blue) and rotational (F_rot; green) forces. The sum of translatory and rotational forces is equal to the calculated force (Calc. F_N; purple). The measured force (Meas. F_N; red) is the normal force measured using our dynamically scaled mechanical model. The wake capture force is the large discrepancy between measured and calculated force at the beginning of each half-stroke, indicated by the open gray boxes.